Manage Sex Offenders Effectively Psychology Essay

Manage Sex Offenders Effectively Psychology Essay The aim of this essay is to provide a historical overview of the developments on the risk assessment of sex offenders literature, focusing specifically on the advances in this area of research. Firstly, a definition of risk will be provided, followed by the aims of risk assessment and an example of the practical implications of inaccurate risk assessment. Subsequently, this essay will outline four generations of risk assessment for sex offenders, which were inspired on Bontas (1996) three generations of risk assessment. Particular regard will be given to the third and fourth generations, since these are the ones that reflect the recent advances in risk assessment. Due to the heterogeneity inherent to the concept of sexual offenders, and because most of the risk assessment tools have been developed and validated on adult male sexual offenders (Craig Beech, 2010), only instruments used with this sub-group will be discussed in this essay. As stated by Hart, Laws and Kropp (2003), the definition of risk is not straightforward. For the scope of this essay, risk will be conceptualised as the probability of an offender being reconvicted for a sexual or violent offence. Risk assessment has two main aims. The first one is predicting the likelihood of reoffending of an individual, and the second one is guiding risk management, including the identification of risk factors associated with the offending behaviour and the selection of appropriate treatment programmes. Inaccurate prediction of risk can have serious consequences such as prolonged incarceration, in case of overestimation, or the release of dangerous offenders, in case of underestimation of risk (A. R. Beech, Craig, Browne, 2009). Clinical Judgement The first generation of risk assessment procedures will be called Clinical Judgement. This is an ideographic approach, according to which the practitioner relies on his/her professional experience to evaluate the individuals characteristics and make a decision regarding the risk he poses. However, the processes through which a practitioner reaches a decision are rarely easily observable and are not easy to replicate (A. R. Beech, 2001). Structured assessment tools The subjectivity inherent to clinical judgement led to the development of more structured assessment tools. Actuarial measures are the most widely used structured instruments for risk assessment of sexual offenders. The most commonly used risk tools with adult male sexual offenders are the RRASOR (Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offense Recidivism; Hanson, 1997); SACJ (Structured Anchored Clinical Judgement; Grubin, 1998; Hanson Thornton, 2000); Static-99 (Hanson Thornton, 2000); RM 2000 (Risk Matrix 2000; Thornton et al., 2003); and the SORAG (Sex Offender Risk Appraisal Guide; Quinsey et al., 1998). For the purpose of this essay, only some particularities of each tool will be discussed. The RRASOR is simple and easy to use. The fact that it was designed using data from seven different follow-up studies makes it more comprehensive than other tools. It was designed to screen offenders into levels of risk. The SACJ can be used with missing data, is brief and easy to use. However, it has been stated that it works better as a predictor of non-sexual offences (Craig, Browne, Beech, 2008). Static-99 is a combination of RRASOR and SACJ. It is the most commonly used risk tool with adult sex offenders (Hanson Morton-Bourgon, 2009) and it is intended to measure long-term risk potential. The RM 2000 has two counterparts: sexual and violent. It is widely used in British Prison and Probation Services (Hanson Morton-Bourgon, 2009). The SORAG was designed to predict at least one reconviction of a sexual offence. It measures both violent and sexual recidivism. Although the predictive accuracy of these tools commonly outperforms clinical judgement (Grove, Zald, Lebow, Snitz, Nelson, 2000), several limitations have also been pointed. Is has been argued that the static nature of actuarial measures makes it impossible to identify the psychological factors underlying risk and hence provides no guidance for treatment and case management (Craig, Browne, Beech, 2008). Furthermore, because actuarial tools are derived from base rates which are officially recorded as reconviction, the probabilities will underestimate true offence rates. The reason for this being, for instance, the high number of underreporting of sexual offences (Janus Meehl, 1997) and the fact that some sexually motivated offences are recorded as violent offences (Corbett, Patel, Erikson, Friendship, 2003). In addition, sub-groups of sexual offenders, like sexual offenders with learning disabilities, should not be assessed with the use of actuarial tools that have not been devel oped specifically for these populations, since different sub-groups will have different base rates (Craig Beech, 2010). Also, we should take into account what is called the statistical fallacy, according to which group data are used to make decisions on a single individual. This practice has its dangers since the practitioner might disregard unusual factors that are relevant to a particular case (A. R. Beech, Fisher, Thornton, 2003) . Finally, actuarial instruments do not estimate long-term risk since they are based on unchangeable, historical static factors, taking no account of changeable, dynamic risk factors that might indicate imminent risk (A. R. Beech, Fisher, Thornton, 2003). Dynamic approaches to risk assessment The statement presented by Hart, Laws and Kropp (2003) is illustrative of the contention around the utility of actuarial tool. The main reason for this being that these tools represent probabilities of recidivism, not a certainty (A. R. Beech, Fisher, Thornton, 2003), which are based solely on historical factors. This debate encouraged researchers to developed instruments which additionally integrate factors that account for the context in which offences occur, and that are amenable to change. These factors have been named dynamic risk factors or criminogenic needs (Andrews Bonta, 2003). A significant landmark in the research of dynamic risk factors was the development of a deviancy construct (A. R. Beech, 1998) which led to the creation of a system named STEP (Sex Offender Treatment Evaluation Project; Beech, 1998). This framework is used by Probation Services to categorise child molesters into high or low deviancy groups (A. R. Beech, Fisher, Thornton, 2003; A. R. Beech, 1998) . Evidence for significant differences between these two groups has been found by Fisher, Beech and Brown (1999) and by Beech and Ford (2006). Moreover, a six years follow-up study suggested that deviancy contributes independently to prediction of reconviction once static risk factors had been considered (A. R. Beech, Erikson, Friendship, Hanson, 2002). It can then be suggested, that categorisation of sexual offenders into high and low deviancy groups not only informs treatment options, but it also adds to the predictive value of static risk factors. Another marker in risk assessment literature was the differentiation between two types of dynamic risk factors: stable and acute risk factors (Hanson Harris, 2001; Hanson Harris, 2000). Stable dynamic risk factors are those which represent relatively persistent characteristics of the individual that can be changed through therapy (Craig Beech, 2010). Acute dynamic risk factors are rapidly changing factors that are useful in predicting imminent risk (Craig, Browne, Beech, 2008). From this research, the authors created the SONAR (Sex Offender Need Assessment Ratings) which has been developed into the STABLE and ACUTE scales (Hanson Harris, 2000). These scales, as the names suggest, rate stable and acute dynamic factors. The ACUTE scale has the particularity of including a unique factor at the end, which can be any factor that might trigger offending behaviour. It might be, for instance, contact with a specific person that elicits a strong emotional response in the offender. This f actor illustrates the changeable, contextual nature of these scales, emphasising the importance of addressing individual differences and idiographic characteristics. Thornton (2002) reported a further innovation in risk prediction with sexual offenders. He suggested that dynamic risk factors fall within four domains: sexual interest, distorted attitudes, socio-affective functioning, and self-management (Thornton, 2002). This categorisation has been standardised in a measure called SRA (Structured Risk Assessment; Thornton, 2002) which is a risk/need instrument. It can be operationalised through structured clinical ratings, leaving open the question of how to best score needs. The IDA (Initial Deviance Assessment) has been routinely used in HMP services as part of SARN (Structured Assessment of Risk and Need, Thornton, 2002), which is a version of the SRA. In order to score the dimensions mentioned above, the practitioner usually gathers information from several sources such as psychometric tests, clinical interview and self-report scales. Sexual interests in specific, have been commonly measured by physiological measures such as the plethysmograph (PPG), response-time based measures, and the polygraph (A. R. Beech, Craig, Browne, 2009). However, these measures have been criticised on several grounds. It has been suggested that they are intrusive, lacking construct validity and standardisation (Williams, 2003). It has also been suggested that individuals can use countermeasures to suppress arousal (Laws, 2003). In order to tackle these limitations, some authors have suggested the use of the Multiphasic Sexual Inventory (MSI; Nichols Molinder, 1984) as a reliable way of measuring psychosexual characteristics (Craig, Browne, Beech, Stringer, 2006; Grady, Brodersen, Abramson, 2011). The use of MSI to measure sexual interests might be considered an advance in risk assessment research. It seems to add objectivity and standardisation to physiological measures, and it is ethically more appropriate. Thornton (2002) tested the last three aspects of the model (distorted attitudes, socio-affective functioning, self-management) with a sample of child molesters and also replicated the results with rapists, showing that the dynamic risk factors tested in the model were predictive of sexual offending independent of static factors (Craig, Browne, Beech, 2008). One again, this provides evidence for the importance of including dynamic factors is risk assessment tools. At this point in the history, the static and dynamic approaches to risk assessment have never been clearly integrated into a single tool (A. R. Beech Ward, 2004; Olver, Wong, Nicholaichuk, Gordon, 2007). The development of a tool named VRS-SO (Violence Risk Scale Sexual Offender version; Wong, Olver, Nicholaichuk, Gordon, 2003) does this integration, representing an important advance in risk assessment of sex offenders. This tool incorporates static and dynamic risk factors, also comprising treatment planning and the measurement of treatment change, within a single tool for assessing risk in sexual offenders. It has been suggested that this tool has good inter-rater reliability, concurrent validity, and that total scores were predictive of sexual recidivism. It has also been suggested that the dynamic scale made significant contributions to the predictive value of the tool after controlling for static risk (Beggs Grace, 2010). We now move to a point where the importance of integrating, static and dynamic risk factors, alongside information for case management is recognised. However, risk assessment tools have been constructed through statistical analysis and the application of meta-analysis to identify which risk factors are mostly correlated to future recidivism. It has been suggested that this work is atheoretical and reductionist in the extent that it lacks a strong theoretical background and focuses too much on specific factors of risk (Beech, A. Ward, T., 2007). Multi-factorial approaches Efforts to integrate risk within a theoretical framework mark the fourth generation of risk assessment. One of the most promising multi-factorial approaches to risk assessment of sexual offenders has been presented by Beech and Ward (2007) as the Etiological Model of Risk. The main aim of this model is to incorporate the conceptualisation of risk within an etiological and developmental framework based on current theories of sexual offending (A. R. Beech Ward, 2004). The model starts by including developmental factors such as rejection and attachment problems, which can increase vulnerability to sexually abuse. This first step of the model is theoretically based on Marshall and Barbarees Integrated theory of sex offending (Marshall Barbaree, 1990). It is then proposed that developmental factors might impact on vulnerability trait factors. These are composed by static factors and stable dynamic risk factors. In this model static factors are seen as historical markers for psychological dispositions (stable dynamic risk factors). As follows, triggering/contextual risk factors such as vic tim access behaviour, non-cooperation with supervision and hostility (previously described by Hanson and Harris (2001) as acute factors) impact on the vulnerability factors. These vulnerability factors are then expressed into transient states of high-risk, since they are reflective of an individuals psychological state (eg. physiological arousal and affective states). This chain of events, moving gradually from distal factors to more imminent, contextual factors, places individuals at an overall level of risk (Beech, A. Ward, T., 2007). This approach to risk assessment has several practical implications. As a starting point, it encourages practitioners to consider a wider range of risk factors, enabling objective case formulation, which will link closely to each domain of risk (Beech, A. Ward, T., 2007) . Additionally, the reformulation of acute and stable dynamic factors into more psychologically meaningful terms enables the practitioner to contextualise risk into theoretical frameworks that explain the process of offending as a gradual sequence of events (A. R. Beech Ward, 2004). Also, this model addresses individual differences to a greater extent than other models of risk assessment. This approach perceives the offender as a changeable organism, who is shaped by early developmental experiences, psychological traits and more transient states; and will respond to environmental stimuli accordingly. Moreover, this approach also has heuristic value, proposing ways in which research could be conducted to develop this model further. However, for the purpose of this essay, these suggestions will not be explored (see (Beech, A. Ward, T., 2007) for more details). The MARA model (Multiaxial Risk Appraisal; Craig, Browne, Hogue, Stringer, 2004) was developed taking into account a number of developments in the risk assessment literature, also representing a considerable advance in the area. This model structures risk-related information into three main domains: risk scales, psychopathology and empirically guided clinical assessment, from which an overall estimate of risk can be made. It provides a more global assessment of risk by considering both idiographic (the uniqueness of individuals) and nomothetic (general traits of personality) properties. The MARA encourages the use of actuarial methods as a way of providing estimates of risk within specified time-periods, considers the use of psychometrics to assess psychological constructs and suggests the use of empirically guided clinical assessment (functional analysis) as a method of monitoring acute changes. Furthermore, this approach encourages an efficient management of risk, taking into acco unt all the factors cited above (Craig, Browne, Beech, 2008) . Such as the etiological model, this approach aims to investigate risk of recidivism from different trajectories, allowing a more global assessment. However, it is not yet known whether adding idiographic factors actually enhances or undermines predictive accuracy (A. R. Beech, Craig, Browne, 2009) . Hence, until further testing, this model of risk assessment must be used with caution. Nevertheless, both the etiological model of risk and MARA can be described as comprehensive approaches to risk assessment, which offer a broad range of topics which are relevant for an accurate assessment of risk. Regarding the practical utility of these approaches, this essay argues that even though it might not be possible to address all the areas of risk in intervention due to effective management of resources, practitioners using these models would have a wide conceptualisation of the risk posed by individuals, and which areas would be more relevant to address at a specific point in time. As a final remark in the advances in risk assessment, this essay would like to highlight the utility of the Risk-Needs-Responsivity (RNR) model (Andrews Bonta, 2003) . This model emphasises the importance of accurate risk assessment, in order to provide the right degree of intervention; suggests a focus on the changeable risk factors presented by individuals and encourages practitioners to consider factors that may affect or impede an individuals response to treatment. As means of conclusion, and referring back to the statement in discussion (Hart, Laws, Kropp, 2003) it can be stated that throughout time risk assessment has moved to being a more understood and certain process than it when the assessment of risk was based on intuition. In an attempt to confer objectivity to this procedure, several researchers developed statistical-based, standardised approached such as actuarial tools. Thereafter, the limitations of these tools, and mainly their static nature led researchers to explore the dynamic, changeable factors related to risk and developing several useful tools. At this point it was also felt necessary to construct tools that informed case management. As proposed by Harkins and Beech (2007), it was crucial to account for risk level to an extent that it could also influence success of treatment. The most recent advances employed multi-factorial, broad models of risk which perceive risk assessment as an ongoing process, which needs to consider idiographic, historical and contextual factors. Furthermore, the RNR model provided useful guidelines for risk assessment of sexual offenders. Applying the principles of this model to exiting assessment tools has the potential of not only conferring more certainty to thi s process, but also to influence treatment outcomes. This essay suggests that multi-factorial models, together with RNR principles, represent a step forward in moving risk assessment from a probability to a more certain science. This could potentially lead to a decrease in inaccurate prediction of risk, further decreasing the consequences that it involves, such as putting society at risk or unnecessary monetary expenses. It also goes without saying, that enhancing risk assessment tools is an everlasting effort, which is far from being finished.

Immigrants and Immigration - We Are a Nation of Immigrants Essays

We Are a Nation of Immigrants The United States is a nation of immigrants, a melting pot of the worlds people. The argument of immigration and whether it enhances or threatens life in the United States is ongoing. Having been through the immigration process, because my wife is a immigrant from Germany, has caused me to know immigration enhances life in the United States. Diversified cultures have strengthened our social fabric and have molded our national morals and social values. Thru the years every new immigrant brought with them the best ideas of their society and together with guts and hard work they turned a rugged wilderness into flourishing towns and cities creating opportunity for the next generation of immigrants. Our society was founded with the idea that each individual is important, honest labor brings rewards, and each individual is guaranteed the right to be free. Peter Martin wrote "Towards Something American" in Harpers Magazine (July 1994), and asserted he is not sure we even have a American culture. Sure we do, American culture can not be defined in the traditional sense and has slowly evolved from the European culture of the initial immigrants to a vast vat of the world's cultures and traditions. We've adapted the best of the world's cultures and traditions to fit in with American society, molding our social values. Not that each American thinks and acts the same way, that makes Americans special. We have many ideas of what our culture should be. The Germans have October Fest, the Irish have Saint Patrick's day, and the Jew's have Hanukkah. In many instances it is based on our geographic location within the United States and the people who settled there. Oth... ... possess similar job skills as natives. Mr. Simon writes, "Immigrants typically arrive when they are young and healthy. Hence new immigrant families use fewer welfare services than do average native families because immigrants do not receive expensive Social Security and other aid to the aged". This allows the immigrants to contribute more to the system then they use. The immigration issue will not be solved in the near future. The debate will continue and both sides will argue tainted statistics that are bent to conform with their ideas. Since the United States is a nation of immigrants and the most powerful nation in the world, we've been doing something right. Can we deal with the immigration issue smarter, with more hard facts, and with less emotion? I say yes, but in the meantime lets not fix something that may not be broken.

Causes of the Industrial Revolution :: essays research papers

England was the first country to experience the advantages and disadvantages of the Industrial Revolution, as it was the very first country in which the event happened, primarily because England was such a good source of coal and iron, arguably the most important resources needed by a country during the Industrial Revolution. Although England also experienced the Industrial Revolution because England was bountiful in lead, copper, tin, limestone and fast water supplies, overall, England was probably the most ideal place for the Industrial Revolution to be staged in the first place. A major cause for the Industrial Revolution was the enormous spurt of population growth in England. Along side the fast growth in population, medical systems had also improved, thus there was a reduction in the number of epidemics that spread resulting in less of a death toll through lack of medical knowledge. From this, the percentage of children who lived through childhood also began to increase, thus the future workforce would be even large than previously. The increase in population meant that there were more people in surplus from agricultural jobs and they had to find work in industrial factories, which was the basis of the Industrial Revolution. One of the darker causes for the Industrial Revolution was the slave trade with overseas colonies at the time. For many merchants who saw the easy money to be made from the voyages, the merchants became extremely rich – and as it is in human nature – these rich merchants wanted to become even more rich, the seemingly best way to do this was to invest profits from the slave trade into the new factories that were arising, this is called â€Å"Commercial Revolution†. Britain was one of the few countries that was able to bring in profits from other countries and keep profits in their country, aiding them into being the first country to Revolutionise Industrially. The new invention of steam power was one of the great motives for the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, steam was used to power many of the machines, thus with the invention of steam power, the Industrial Revolution was powered onwards. The duo of inventors, Thomas Savery and Thomas Newcomen were both based in Britain, thus, this was the place where the inventions were first used giving Britain the time advantage over other countries.

Drown Compare & contrast :: essays research papers

In this Paper I will compare and contrast the some of the relationships in "Everyday Use" by Alice Walker, to Drown by Junot Diaz. Dee and maggie are sister in "Everyday Use". Dee is outgoing and ambitious, Maggie is shy and lazy. Maggie envies Dee, but also fears her. They act more like co-workers than siblings. In the story they don't appear to interact with each other often, which makes it difficult to develop a relationship.From the story it doesn't illustrate them ever having a close connection probably due to Maggie's shyness and envy. Alice Walker writes "Maggie will be be nervous until after her sister goes: she will stand hopelessly in corners homely and ashamed of the burn scars down her arms and legs, eyeing her sister with a mixture of envy and awe. She thinks her sister has held life always in the palm of one hand, that "no" is a word never learned to say to her." Dee(Wangero) is the most dominant one out of the two, which is no surprise since she tries take the quilts from Dee (Wangero). I found it I found it odd that she wanted those quilts because of her he ritage, when she completely disgraced her heritage when she traded her own name in for Wangero. Alice writes : "You know as well as me yhou was named after you aunt Dicie." I said. Dicie is my sister, She name Dee. We called her "Big Dee" after Dee was born. "But who was she named after?" asked Wangero. "I guess agter Grandma Dee," I said. "And who was she name after?" asked Wangero. "Her mother," I said, and saw Wangero was getting tired. "That's about as far back as I can trace it," I said. Though, in fact, I probably could have carried it back beyond the civil war through the branches. Her name had been passed down from generation to generation before Dee received it. Obviously the name had great importance in her family. Her mother could trace the name back to the civil war and connect it with specific people in her family. Alice Walker write's "you just don't understand," she said , as Maggie and I came out to the car. "what don't I understand?" I wanted to know. "Your heritage," she said".She criticize her mother about not understanding their heritage though, she places her heritage on those quilts instead of continuing the family name that was handed down to her.

Heritage and Narrative Style in Alice Walker’s Essay

Everyday Use (1973), one of legendary author Alice Walker’s most popular and often anthologized short stories, employs a unique narrative style that serves not as a device to indicate chronology of events, but for a more significant goal. The transitions between the different tenses—past, present and future—symbolize the conflict exposed in the story of a black woman and her two daughters, who are polar opposites of each other. Specifically, it tackles the discussion of the African-American heritage, used in the story as a stage for different interpretations coming from various points of knowledge. The voices changes represent debates of future vs. present, present vs. past, affirmation vs. negation, and family vs. heritage. The narrator is the woman, Mrs. Johnson, referred to by her daughters as â€Å"Mama†, who lives in rural American South presumably during the late 1960s or early 70s. She has two daughters—Dee, the prettier one who left home for the city to study; and Maggie, of the many burn scars from a fire that raged their first home, and is painfully shy and prefers to stay in the background. The events start with the arrival of Dee, after many years, with her mother and sister preparing for the moment. This is mainly the reason for the future tense used in the opening paragraphs, as Mrs. Johnson describes how the just-swept yard looks like, and how nervous Maggie seems. Anticipation for what they may witness upon the arrival of Dee is clearly communicated, as well as references to the world they live in, unchanged by time yet comfortable for its occupants. Here, the typical texture of rural black America is subtly depicted, as detailed by the hard clay yard and the presence of elm trees. The next parts suddenly shift to present tense, as Mr. Johnson describes herself, and her relationship with her daughters. and the personalities of the two girls. She reveals her farm life and background, and how this contrasts and echoes the resulting characters of Dee and Maggie. Introspection is used throughout, indicating the inner debate Mrs. Johnson has with herself and possibly to validate her failure or success in raising her daughters. She speaks of Maggie in the present tense, but later changes to the past when describing Dee—showing that her familiarity with her girl remains purely in her memory. She compares Dee’s life as a teenager with that of her own, defining the obvious differences in attitude, education, and opportunities received. Several mentions of how Dee refused to live in the old house and possibly in the new one, representative of backwoods life, are points of emphasis referring to her character and attitude. These two observations, both real and anticipated, are the first hints at Dee’s negation of their heritage. Mrs. Johnson’s narrative also tells of another symbolic scene, as their first house burned down—when Maggie was marked with the permanent burn scars. Dee, while it was happening, was a safe distance away as she watched the burning intently, oblivious to the danger and the harm it was causing her sister. This image serves as an illustration of Dee’s hatred of the culture and heritage they have come to know, and how it has scarred her sister and rendered her insecure and invisible. Dee, who lives by her own rules, ultimately emerges as the clear winner in this phase of their unspoken battle. See more: how to start a personal narrative essay examples The narration of Dee’s arrival again begins with the future tense, but is literally cut abruptly by her presence. The voice shifts back to present, as Mrs. Johnson describes in graphic detail the strangeness of her daughter’s appearance, with a decidedly humorous tone that connotes subtle sarcasm over the absurdity. Dee, who now wants to be called Wangero, is made to appear like a caricature; the same, if not worse, goes for her male companion, who introduces himself as the Muslim Asalamalakim. The action is shown through various details that indicate both insincerity and pretense, starting with Dee’s laughable affectations in using a Polaroid camera—a symbol of technology, and, in this context, a device used to separate herself with her old life—her stylized wardrobe, and Asalamalakim’s unreal claim of his religious preference. Dee’s appearance in supposedly native African garb can be best described as her own personal style, and not cultural; Mrs. Johnson confirms this by recalling a unique trait of her daughter, that she always knew what style was, and was never without her own. But when Mrs. Johnson questions Dee, or Wangero, about her name change, her daughter simply and directly replies that Dee is dead. At this point, the narrative tense makes the most significant shift in the whole story—because this is the defining moment when Dee has become Wangero, and has finally revealed her decision to cut her African-American affinity, and consequently, her ties with her family. The concept of grief, which always alludes to the past, enters Mrs. Johnson’s narrative as a technique to contain the events as part of memory, and to point toward closure. As the story progresses, Wangero seems to take a curious interest in certain objects in the house, regular items that are used for their purpose yet pinpoint the kind of lifestyle its owners have. Wangero looks at them like souvenirs or decorative pieces that would be symbols of a life she has left, that solely serve as art. Her claim to the butter churn indicates her goal to showcase the object as a foreign memento, much like the Polaroid photos she took of her family and the house. However, while the churn was indeed a kitchen tool often used, its relevance to Mrs. Johnson and Maggie is closely-connected to their family’s history, because it was made by one of their relatives—coincidentally, the husband of the aunt Dee was named after. After a while, Wangero moves on to search for something that turns out to be the main reason for her visit: the set of quilts sewn by her grandmother, assisted by her mother and aunt. They were made from her grandmother’s dresses, and were all hand-stitched. For families like theirs, the quilts stand for values and relationships, and the time it took to create them also refer to togetherness and female bonding. Again, just like the churn, Wangero wanted the quilts for show—but on a larger scale. What have always been objects with purpose, meaning, and value in personal terms were about to be turned into conversation pieces and lonely wall decor; for this is exactly what Wangero had in mind. Mrs. Johnson informs her that she is reserving the quilts for when Maggie weds equally average John Thomas, but Wangero declares that Maggie would only put them to everyday use, and would eventually destroy such great pieces of art. The same ‘art’ that she had deemed old-fashioned when Mrs. Johnson offered her one went she went off to college. Maggie, as always, is willing to give up the quilts to her sister, but at this instance, her mother is overcome with her own realization—that the quilts deserved to stay with Maggie, possibly the one tangible representation of equality between her daughters. Wangero expresses her disgust over her family’s seeming ignorance and disrespect for their heritage, as she defined it, and for their lack of drive and objective. She departs by wearing oversized sunglasses, covering most of her face, yet another symbol of Wangero’s mindset to cover up and maintain a facade over her real identity. The last sentence of the story returns to present tense, as Mrs. Johnson relates how she and Maggie would just sit there, enjoying checkerberry snuff, unmindful of Wangero’s exit. Clearly, the narrator opts for this change to refer to actual change in their lives; she no longer had Wangero on a pedestal, and instead realized the value of the daughter who chose family over all else. Alice Walker made use of the innovative device of shifting tenses to communicate the reality of many black American families in the debate between heritage and empowerment. During this period, when racism and equality were still being discussed on a national scale, heritage exclusively referred to family and traditional values. The cultural identity and affirmation Wangero sought appeared shallow, for its sole meaning to her was for showcase, and was simply a rejection of all things familiar and valuable. The transposition of tenses shows Wangero’s superficial understanding of her newfound ideology, and the greater problem of her family’s acceptance if it. The device also plays out Mrs. Johnson’s predicament in making a wise choice, as established by the many questions she asked herself in the beginning of the story. Much of it was about her two girls, and which one she would choose—the smart, beautiful Dee, or the timid, deformed Maggie? Eventually, her decision, albeit unconsciously, was slowly and firmly made as she discovered how easy it had always been for Dee to turn her back on family and heritage. Because heritage for Dee or Wangero was one that was shown and remembered through photos and mementos, as detached from her self as old history books.

What Russia completely backwards as a Country

Was Russia a backwards country? Many things held Russia behind as a country compared to the other great powers Like Britain, France and Germany. One thing that held the country back was Serfdom. Russian's population as made up from 80% Serfs and the majority of Serfs owned no land. Serfs produced little export because the food that they harvested was Just enough to feed them and their families. This held the country back because little Income was coming into the country to fund an Industrial revolution.By 1855 only Russia out of the great powers still had serfs. Serfs were also made to live In Emir's which again hindered the country and the Industrial revolution because less people traveled to the big cities to become workers In the factories because serfs had to ask permission from the elders to leave the Emir's. Russia was behind in the Industrial revolution compared to the other great powers of Europe like Britain who started there industrial revolution by the end of the 18th cent ury.Another thing that held Russia back was Autocratic state. The Tsar was in complete control of Russia and had no one to answer to when making his decisions on what happened with his country. The country had no real parliament as only one was ever formed by Alex II but was then removed by his son Alex Ill after his assassination. This was unlike Britain and France who were ruled by the government at this time. However Russia was much like Germany at this time which was ruled by a Kaiser Wilhelm II.Since Russia had no real parliament Russia was stuck with the conservative ideas of Tsar and his ministers. There are however reasons to suggest the Russia wasn't completely backwards as a country. Alexander II did make reforms for example the emancipation f the serfs and the setting up of Russian's very first government, even though this government was very limited to only the rich and educated men it was a step in the right direction for Russia.Russia also had the Trans-Siberian railwa y which the country was very proud of, which suggests that the country was advancing. However It was still behind countries like Britain which had Railway systems since Manama years before the railway was extended In the sass In Russia. The size of the Russia empire also suggests the advancement of Russia as Russia was able to keep the arrest continuous land empire In the world covering a sixth of the world's surface.Russia during the end of the 19th century and to the beginning of the 20th century as a country was clearly advancing with the extension of the railway and the attempt at reform however the country could not advance quick enough to match that of Brutal and France due to the conservative attitude of the autocratic leaders of Russia Itself. What Russia completely backwards as a Country 1881? By Astrologically like Britain, France and Germany. One thing that held the country back was Serfdom. Income was coming into the country to fund an industrial revolution.By 1855 only Russia out of the great powers still had serfs. Serfs were also made to live in Emir's which again hindered the country and the industrial revolution because less people traveled to the big cities to become workers in the factories because serfs had to ask it was still behind countries like Britain which had Railway systems since Manama years before the railway was extended in the sass in Russia. The size of the Russia largest continuous land empire in the world covering a sixth of the world's surface. Britain and France due to the conservative attitude of the autocratic leaders of Russia itself.

Community Crime Prevention Strategies Essay

Do community safety, crime prevention; crime reduction initiatives help all victims? Choose specific types of CS – police led, management of offenders, crime prevention as focus. The Home Office delineates community safety as, â€Å"An aspect of quality of life in which people, individually and collectively, are protected as far as possible from hazards or threats that result from the criminal or anti-social behaviour of others and are equipped or helped to cope with those they do experience† (Home Office: 1998) The fear of crime can impact us in a major way on how we feel about our community. â€Å"Localised action against crime† also know as community safety, crime prevention or crime reduction; is often practiced by police officers and authority workers e.g. Probation workers, housing officers etc. Community safety focuses on introducing physical and social changes to local communities to enforce balance and prevent crime and disorder from taking place. There are three ways of classifying crime prevention, primary secondary and tertiary prevention. Primary prevention targets the general population to prevent crime from happening before it has happens. Secondary prevention targets the population that is most at risk, where Tertiary prevention focuses on the individual; Often a known offender (Newburn, 2007:566) The aim of community safety is to allow local residents to be able to live their lives freely, yet still feel comfortable and protected in their area by local authorities. All citizens should be able to live without interruption or fear that may come from crime and disorder. In some ways community safety can be hard to define, as various communities have different ways of carrying out the service. In some communities citizens have a say in what issues they feel need to be addressed and prioritized for action in their community; and in others they don’t. So where some issues may be of relevance in one community, it won’t be of relevance in another. Most importantly once an issue has been tackled it is fundamental that it does not re-occur. Offending behavior can negatively affect an individual and/or a whole community. By reducing offending behavior community service should generally improve the quality of live of an individual or community, both socially and economically. Without first addressing fear and typical preconceptions of crime, any action to prevent anti-social behavior will be of no relevance, as communities may be unaware of the changes occurring and therefore reluctant to believe that they are being protected. It is after the Morgan Report in 1991 when the term ‘Community safety’ first came into notion. As stated by ‘CSinfo magazine’ â€Å"The term community safety was not well defined then and in some eyes the same is true today† (CSinfo: n.d.). Anti social behavior and the nature of crime can cause the focus of community service to shift at times. This is mainly because of the difference in cultures, various religions and ethnic groups that may be in one community. Therefore we can question if community service is effective in a diverse society. In all of this we must take diversity and ethics into consideration. In society people have different values and approaches to life. Diversity is the unique difference that we all have. In all walks of life there will always be people from various backgrounds that we must make contact with. Diversity can be a cause of conflict and tensions within a society. Community safety aims to prevent divisions within a community and create unity to establish a safer and more comfortable lifestyle for civilians. Community safety or community policing can be very effective in society as it establishes a good and trusting relationship between the police and citizens. The police become â€Å"part of the neighbourhood† (Anon: 2010), In addition to creating relationships it also enables the police to become aware of what the community needs. This partnership allows police officers to familiarize themselves with individual members of the community. As well as this, they are able to remember important information about the people that are of risk to the community. In all aspects of policing there will always be advantages and disadvantages. A great advantage of community policing is that it reduces any fear that one may have. This creates a sense of trust between the police and community and therefore civilians will feel safer. ‘Law teacher’ states, â€Å"as citizens become more active in taking care of their community, they start to understand what officers actually do on a day-to-day basis† (Anon: 2010). A disadvantage of community policing is that without the trust of the community and community involvement there isn’t much that the police can do. If they don’t have first hand knowledge of certain issues within the community they cannot solve it nor can they be aware of the specific citizens that are of risk to the rest of the community. The majority of people find it hard to trust the police, especially in ethic minority communities where many people believe that the police are racist. In saying this any attempt to help a community will fail, as there is no partnership between the police and community. Another disadvantage is that community policing is a long-term partnership and results will not be seen immediately. Members of the community may feel as though they are wasting their time in trusting in the police to better their neighborhood, yet nothing has changed. The relationship must be maintained for it to work. â€Å"Community policing is a philosophy, not a program† (Roth: 2000,183) An additional disadvantage is that the same members of the community step forward to help and improve the neighborhood, however it requires the help and belief of whole (or majority) of the community for the service to be effective. â€Å"Community policing is only as good as its community involvement† (Law Teacher: 2010). Overall the advantages weigh out the disadvantages of community policing. Community policing is effective as it establishes a relationship between the police and citizens, which generally improves the safety and the peace of mind of the community. â€Å"Community-based programs are important in the service delivery in many communities†(Mancini & Marek: 2004, 339). To prevent crime in their neighbourhood people develop programs that aid in the prevention of crime and disorder in their community. There are several community policing programs, the most popular program is known to be the ‘neighbourhood watch’, where locals come together to make their community a safer place. Neighbourhood watch can be beneficial to a community as it allows locals to be aware of any suspicious activity. ‘National Night Out’ is another program that helps to fight crime in a community. Residents that participate in this, leave their outside lights on during the night, in the hope that civilians will safeguarded at night time where (in more dangerous areas) there are more drug and alcohol misusers gallivanting the streets. D.A.R.E which stands for ‘ Drug Abuse Resistance Education’, is a program that seeks to make young adults (teenagers) feel good about the police, as well as preventing violent behavior, the abuse of drugs and alcohol and gang involvement. The program informs young people on how to say no from peer pressure, and build the necessary skills that they need to ensure a better lifestyle. Through D.A.R.E students are able to identify the perils of violence in their community as well as in their schools. Neoliberism, the idea that the rich stay rich and the poor stay poor. In place of tackling poverty right realists would prefer to reduce crime through control. They argue with Marxists that although several old people are poor their crime rate is low. They believe that labeling theory â€Å"romanticises† the criminal by being too sympathetic. The problem with this approach is that although harsh methods of punishment may be good for the moment, they aren’t very effective for the long term. When putting someone in prison all aspects of their life must be considered. The offender may have a family that solely depends on them. In addition the offender may have health issues that could deteriorate in a prison environment. The biosocial theory of criminal behavior was introduced in 1985 by Wilson and Herrnstein. They explored the notion that criminal behavior is influenced by social and biological factors. Herrnstein and Murray believed that low intelligence was the main cause of crime. Also developed from biological causes. Yes it is true that the chance of a person becoming an offender can be increased by biological cause however, it is believed that environmental have more influence on an offenders behavior. â€Å"Charles Murray (1990) argues crime is increasing because of a growing underclass who is defined by deviant behaviour and who fails to socialise properly† (Anon: 2012). . Unlike right realists, left realists share the same views as labour government. Described as socialist in 1984 Lea and Young support the modification of society rather than the avant-garde change by a few Marxists. They debate that right wing politicians in an industrial capitalist society, have presented themselves accordingly as the parties of forces of law and order. Left realist believe that all crimes with the exception of white collar crime need to be tackled and elucidated as they are a serious problem. Since World War Two there has been a significant increase in street crime (Young: 1993) â€Å"Criminology has undergone an etiological crisis† (Anon:2012). This has resulted from the rise in offences that are being recorded officially. Both right realism and left realism share similarities but there are also extreme differences. An example of this is that they both have different political views, where right realists have a conservative mind, left realist have a labour mind. Despite this both believe that crime is a ‘real’ problem, and they fear that crime is rational. Through the way that both sides explain crime, it is clear that right realists are neo conservative, whereas left realists are reformist socialists. Right realists put the blame of offending on the individual but left realists consider environment and relative deprivation, sympathising with the offender. In the same way both sides also have varying political differences, which is shown through their aims and how they plan on soling problems of crime. â€Å"The right prioritise social order achieved through a tough stance of offenders while the left prioritise justice achieved through democratic policing and reforms to create greater equality† (Anon:2012). â€Å"As with other signs of brutishness, the sight of violence, pain, or physical suffering became highly disturbing and distasteful to modern sensibilities† (Garland, 1990: 223). A man like Garland who can be considered as a right realist suggests that we should be more punitive. He argues that we live in a culture that needs more control; although we have become more civilized, we are also more acceptant of mercy and as a society we tend not to punish as hard as they did in the olden days. Despite Garland’s views many still believe that we haven’t learnt to punish less. Moreover some people insist that we have learnt to punish better through the use of modern technology. Unless an offender is of high risk to the rest of society, it is better to rehabilitate through intervention rather than imprison, in the attempt to just remove the person from society. In most cases imprisonment is more expensive than interventions (Williams: 2010). Nevertheless it is still a major aim to manage the risk of reoffending through â€Å"warehousing† (over crowded Imprisonment). Supervised by probation officers, who would advise assist and befriend them† (Probation of Offenders Act 1907). If these requirements were/are neglected the offender may be sent back to court to be re-assed and re-sentenced. (Canton: 2011, 5). â€Å"Offenders would be on probation:instead of being ounished, and on their undertaking to be of good behavior, they would be put to the test and given an opportunity to show they could lead good and industri â€Å"Criminals are not normal, they are wicked, evil, different to us, they are dangerous and they are strangers† (Wilson and Herrnstein: 1985). This is the idea that criminals are like animals, out of control and driven by their animalistic lust to do inhumane things. Crime is linked to low IQ; suggesting that most criminals are black and/or Asian, coming from backgrounds that cannot afford to educate children. The level of how risky someone is should determine the intensity of intervention they must endure. There are wide ranges of interventions in the criminal justice system. Diversion, Reparation, Unpaid work, Supervision and counseling, Basic Skills, Group work programmes, Drug and alcohol programmes, Therapeutic communities’, Circles of support and women’s programmes. We typically do not see only one kind of criminal offender. Although a plethora of offences are made daily, the uniqueness of one person will be different from the criminogenic needs of another person. Diversity and sociological aspects of crime can be an influence of this. Where some offenders may be employed, others could be unemployed. Some may be dependent on drugs; others may have alcohol problems, or suffer from mental illnesses. Despite this a Right realist would rather punish the offender under any circumstance. Realists see crime as something that is real; they believe in solving the problems of crime, whereas Marxists see crime and deviance as something that has been socially constructed through an unequal world and exploited society. Much like the conservative government, right realists trust that there is a solution to the growing crime rates in society. Rather than finding the causes of crime right realists seek to find practical methods in which crime can be monitored. In the opinion of a right realist offenders should be punished rather than rehabilitated. Many see this method as impractical as individually offenders have different criminogenic needs. MAPPA (Multi Agency Public Protection Arrangements). ‘Prisoners Families and Friends service’ states; â€Å"It is not a legal body or framework, but a set of arrangements for supervising offenders in the community. They are principally a structure by which the various agencies an offender comes into contact with can share information and thereby monitor risk factors after the person is released† (Anon: n.d, 26) Joining responsible authorities, MAPPA manage high risk offenders. Forming a partnership with other agencies that may be working with the offender. Once MAPPA and other joined agencies come to a decision on the extent of how risky the person is. A risk management plan will put in order for the offender, which is then reviewed on a regular basis; addressing anti social behavior by monitoring the offender. In a similar way DAAT also monitor offenders. DAAT (Drug and Alcohol Action Team) is a partnership that is accountable for carrying out the 10-year strategy and three year action plan for the government. DAAT unifies all local agencies that have involvement in addressing drug use e.g social services, the voluntary sector. DAAT aim to protect communities by reduces all forms of drug related crime. Preventing danger to families and individuals affected by the use of drugs and alcohol. As well as offenders there are organisations that support victims of crime. These organisations hold programs that are set out to help crime victims move forward through counseling and other services that teach victims their rights in terms of the law. In the USA 35 million people become victims of crime every year (Anon: 2012). After crime most victims and their families are left in a terrible state. Physically, mentally, emotionally and financially, which can be difficult to resolve. Because of this special organisations for victims have been created in the attempt to help millions of victims all over the world. The world has changed very quickly through globalization. We currently contemplate whether science and technology are now creating more risk rather than preventing it. An example of this is through the effect of bullying and anti social behavior with the use of the Internet and social networking sites. And the idea that the world is becoming smaller and smaller. Kinnvall and Jonson stated in 2002 that globalization will have a massive impact on our society forever as it covers all issues from economics, and politics to western culture and specifically â€Å"Americanisation† (Karofi and muanza: 2006). Many people see americanisation as a good thing as it provides development for all, however others would disagree by suggesting that it is a threat to peoples cultures. Discussed in three sections by Kinnvall and Johnson the globalisation process consists of scale, speed and cognition – From the links between social and political societies to the time frame in which globalisation is being hypothesised. In their research Kinnvall and Johnson make it clear that globalisation is not a new discovery. But because of how quickly the world has developed since the millennium increased awareness of globalisation has been made. It is hard ton think of a world without new technology, just 30 years ago the development of the Internet was begin ning. As mentioned previously every offender is different and therefore has an individual criminogenic need; the same goes for victims. Some victims may need long-term assistance depending on how serious the crime was e.g. rape, domestic violence. ‘sensitive crimes prosecution’ are cases like child abuse, child neglect and sexual assault. Organisations have specific programs that deal with these cases where the aim is to shield the victim from having to retell the story of the crime in which they were involved. In many cases victims have to tell their stories numerous times and this can because a daunting and even more traumatizing experience for them. In some circumstances it can even make the victim more unlikely to open up. If the truth isn’t told the full service cannot be fulfilled. To prevent this, the service assigns one lawyer to each case so that the victim only has to tell the story a few times. In doing this both victims and the system are at an advantage. There are programs designed to help all kinds of victims. When dealing with property crime victims mediation is used as a form of mediation. Mediation allows both the victim and offender to receive the correct benefits or sentencing he or she deserves. The victims service organization have a financial restitution program where anything that the offender stole or damaged from the victims property is replaced. This is done through a court ordered sanction. (Andrews: 1989). The program helps victims calculate how much has been damaged in addition to completing the necessary forms, maintain records informing the appropriate officials about the victim’s desire for restitution (Anon: 2012) â€Å"Through the mediator, the victim and offender talk together about trust, completion of the restitution, and what determines if they will meet again† (Anon: 2012). This cannot be done in all situations. E.g. in a situation of rape it is highly unlikely that the victim will want to come in any form of contact with the offender and officials will not expect or ask them too. The programs also file claims for victims. They do as much for the victims as possible to make it easier for them, even little things like filling out forms. Mock trials of criminal justice proceedings are officered so that the victim may become aware of what the real trial may consists of. Preparing them in all areas so that they are not blind-sided. A social working will prepare the victim by asking them a number of questions that may be asked during the trial. Often victims are given information on where the case is heading before any trial has taken place. The victim has the right to state their opinion on pardons and parole hearings. In answering the question and essay title, yes I do believe that crime reduction initiatives help all victims of crime. Even in murder cases the victims families are always addressed and taken care of in the correct way (in most cases). The service that initiatives provide for victims, give the victims a place to turn to for guidance and support in seeking the rightful justice that they deserve. Programs like crisis intervention allow the victim to start recovering from their victimization and deal with their situation. †Restitution and returning of stolen property is another way that victims may financially deal with their victimization. Also simply making victims aware of the rights is an excellent start to the victim’s search for justice† (Anon: 2012). Bibliography: Anon. (2012). Assess the value of the left and right realist approaches to crime and deviance. Available: http://potmd.wordpress.com/2012/03/10/assess-the-value-of-the-left-and-right-realist-approaches-to-crime-and-deviance/. Last accessed 4th Jan 2013 Anon. (n.d.). DAAT. Available: http://www.medway.gov.uk/communityandliving/communitysafety/drugsandalcoholactionteam.aspx. Last accessed 4th Jan 2013. Anon. (2012). high risk offenders. Available: http://www.highland.gov.uk/healthandsocialcare/criminaljusticeservices/highriskoffenders.htm. Last accessed 5th jan 2013. Anon. (2012). Left realism and crime. Available: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/left_realism_crime.htm. Last accessed 6th Jan 2013. Anon. (n.d.). what is community safety?. Available: http://www.csinfo.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&lay